Europeanization of Minority Rights in Turkey and Greece: A Comparative Analysis
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Nihan Akıncılar KÖSEOĞLU
Dr. Akıncılar Köseoğlu’na göre, kitabın temel argümanı Avrupa Birliği’nin (AB) standart bir azınlık hakları politikası olmamasına rağmen, ‘azınlıklara saygı ve onların korunması’ şartını Kopenhag Kriterlerine eklemiş ve bu şartı yerine getiren aday ülkeleri üyeliğe kabul etmeye başlamış olmasıdır. Böylece, AB şartlılık mekanizması aracılığıyla aday ve başvuran ülkeleri azınlıklarına hem pozitif hem de negatif haklar vermesi için hem teşvik etmekte hem de zorlamaktadır. Eğer bu haklar AB standartlarında olmazsa üyeliğe kabul etmemektedir. Aslında, azınlık hakları konusunda belirli bir AB standardı da yoktur. Eğer AB’nin Türkiye ve Yunanistan’ın azınlık haklarını koruma mekanizmalarını geliştirmeleri üzerine uyguladığı baskı karşılaştırılacak olursa, Türkiye’nin Yunanistan’dan daha etkin bir şekilde Avrupalılaştığı görülmektedir. Böylece, Türkiye’de azınlık hakları konusunda ülkeyi teknik olarak AB üyesi olmaya elverişli hale getiren önemli gelişmeler yaşanırken, Türkiye’nin bu reformları daha etkin bir şekilde uygulaması gerekmektedir. Ayrıca Türkiye, Avrupalılaşma sürecinin sosyal-öğrenme kısmını yerine getirmek için hem hükümet düzeyinde hem de toplumsal düzeyde azınlık ve diğer marjinal/dezavantajlı gruplara karşı olan algısını değiştirmelidir. Benzer şekilde, Yunanistan da taraf olduğu birkaç uluslararası antlaşmaya dayanarak 1990’ların başındaki ‘yasal eşitlik-eşit yurttaşlık’ felsefesini daha çok pozitif azınlık hakları vererek benimsemelidir.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABOUT THE BOOK III
EUROPEANIZATION OF MINORITY RIGHTS IN TURKEY AND GREECE: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS V
LIST OF TABLES XI
ABBREVIATIONS XIII
TRANSLITERATION XIX
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: THE CONCEPT OF EUROPEANIZATION AND MINORITY RIGHTS IN EUROPE 11
2.1. Introduction 11
2.2. Europeanization as a Conceptual Framework 12
2.2.1 Europeanization of Member States 17
2.2.2. Europeanization of Candidate Countries: Accession / Enlargement
Europeanization 19
2.3. What is Europeanized? (Domains) 21
2.4. To What Extent is it Europeanized? (Directives) 22
2.5 How is it Europeanized? (through mechanisms): The New Institutionalisms 23
2.6. Historical Evolution of Minorities in Europe 26
2.6.1. What does ‘minority’ mean? 26
2.6.2. Diversity in, and Rights of, Minorities 31
2.6.3. The Emergence of Minorities 32
2.7. The Promotion and Protection of Minority Rights in Europe 35
2.7.1. The Pre-League of Nations Period 36
2.7.2. The League of Nations Period 39
2.7.3. The Period of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, and the
CSCE/OSCE 42
2.7.3.1. Minority Rights in the United Nations (UN) 44
2.7.3.2. Minority Rights in the Council of Europe (CoE) 50
2.7.3.2.1. European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML) -
1992 51
2.7.3.2.2. Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities
(FCNM) - 1995 52
2.7.3.3. Minority Rights in the Conference on Security and Co-operation in
Europe (CSCE)/Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
(OSCE) 53
2.8. Minority Rights in the European Union 56
2.8.1. Is a Minority who has EU Citizenship still a Minority?: The Case of
‘New Minorities’ 61
2.8.2. Is there a Minority Rights Policy within the EU? Is the EU a Visible
or Invisible Player in Minority Rights Protection? 62
2.8.2.1. Minority Rights in the EU Treaties 63
2.8.2.2. Minority Rights in Acquis Communautaire 70
2.8.2.3. Minority Rights in the Accession Treaties 71
2.8.2.4. The Emergence of Conditionality for Candidates 73
2.8.2.5. The ‘Human Rights Clause’ as the ‘Essential Element’ of the
Agreements with Third Countries 74
2.8.2.6. Minority Rights in the EU Institutions: The European Commission,
the Council, the European Council, the European Parliament, and the
Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU) 76
2.8.2.6.1. The European Commission 77
2.8.2.6.2. The Council of the European Union 81
2.8.2.6.3. The European Council 86
2.8.2.6.4. The European Parliament (EP) 87
2.8.2.6.5. The CJEU - ECtHR Judgments on Minorities 91
2.8.2.6.5.1. The Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU) 92
2.8.2.6.5.2. The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) of the
Council of Europe 97
2.8.2.7. Non-binding Instruments for Minority Rights Protection within Europe 108
2.8.2.7.1. The Non-binding Instruments of the EU 108
2.8.2.7.2. Other NGOs and IGOs working for the Improvement of Minority
Rights 111
2.9. Conclusion 115
3. EUROPEANIZATION OF MINORITY RIGHTS IN TURKEY 123
3.1. Introduction 123
3.2. Minority Rights in the Ottoman Empire 124
3.2.1. Minorities in Islam 124
3.2.2. Minorities in the Ottoman Empire (1453-1922) 126
3.3. Minority Rights Evolution in Turkey 137
3.3.1. Lausanne Peace Conference and Minorities in Turkey 140
3.3.2. Minorities in the Turkish Constitutions 146
3.3.3. Hyper-Nationalist Anti-Minority Occurrences 151
3.3.3.1 ‘Citizen, Speak Turkish!’ Campaign 151
3.3.3.2. The Recruitment of the Non-Muslim Minorities and the Wealth Tax 152
3.3.3.3. 6-7 September 1955 Pogrom 156
3.3.3.4. 1964 Mass Deportations 161
3.3.3.5. 1974 Turkish Intervention in Cyprus 166
3.3.3.6. Violations on Minority Rights after 1980 167
3.4. Main Problems of the Rum Minority in Turkey 174
3.4.1. Restrictions on Fundamental Rights by Law 182
3.4.2. Restrictions on Economic Rights by Law 183
3.5. Mechanisms of Minority Rights Protection in Turkey 186
3.6. The Impact of the EU, UN, CoE and the OSCE on the Development of
Minority Rights in Turkey 191
3.6.1. What does Ex Ante Minority Rights Conditionality Mean? 196
3.6.2. An Analysis of the Regular Progress/Country Reports 197
3.7. Evaluation of Interviews with Nine Rum Minority Persons of İstanbul 228
3.8. To what extent is Turkey Europeanized in Terms of Minority Rights
Protection? Rational Choice Institutionalist External Incentives Model and
the Sociological Institutionalism Model for Explaining the Europeanization
of Minority Rights in Turkey 242
3.9. Conclusion 251
4. EUROPEANIZATION OF MINORITY RIGHTS IN GREECE 255
4.1. Introduction 255
4.2. Minority Rights Evolution since Greece’s Independence from the
Ottoman Empire: Anti-Minority Attempts 256
4.3. The Main Problems of the Minorities in Greece 274
4.4. The Mechanisms of the Minority Rights Protection in Greece 287
4.5. The Impact of the EU, UN, CoE, and the OSCE on the Development
of Minority Rights in Greece 293
4.6. Evaluation of Interviews with Eleven Turkish Minority Persons of
Western Thrace 300
4.7. To what extent is Greece Europeanized in terms of its Minority Rights
Protection? Sociological Institutionalist Social-learning and Lesson-drawing
Models and the Rational Choice Institutionalism to Explain Europeanization
of Minority Rights in Greece 317
4.8. Conclusion 323
5. CONCLUSION 325
APPENDIX 333
BIBLIOGRAPHY 341